Author Archives: admin

Grape Toxicity, Canine

Grape and Raisin Toxicity
By Dr. Karen Burgess

Picking ripe grapes from the vine is fun for all. But at the same time grapes and raisins can be very dangerous for dogs and possibly cats. The exact mechanism of this toxicity is not understood and a variety of grapes (seedless or not, green or red) have been implicated along with raisins. Even more frustrating is that there is not a specific toxic dose nor are all animals affected equally.

How many grapes or raisins are a problem?
Grape toxicity is not dose dependent, meaning that the amount of exposure does not correspond well to signs of disease or severity. Previous safe exposure to grapes also does not affect a pet’s susceptibility to toxicity. The toxicity of grape juice and grape jelly are not known so should also be avoided. Grapeseed extract is thought to be safe.

Signs of grape toxicity
The first and only symptoms may be those of gastrointestinal upset (vomiting, diarrhea, inappetance). These symptoms may be present for weeks after ingestion in some cases. In severe cases, potentially fatal kidney failure can occur 12 to 72 hours after ingestion.

What to do if your pet ingests grapes/raisins
Contact your veterinarian, animal emergency hospital, or animal poison control immediately. If ingestion has just occurred, often medication can be given to induce vomiting. Hospitalization for further decontamination, intravenous fluid therapy, and monitoring of kidney values/lab work may also be recommended. If after 3 days there is no sign of kidney disease, the prognosis is typically favorable. In cases of kidney failure, the prognosis is often grave. It is best to contact poison control to determine the risk associated with any given exposure.

Low Calorie Snacks for Your Cat

Low Calorie Store Bought Options

Halo Healthsome Cat Treat 1.5 calories
Zuke’s Cat Natural Purrs 2.5 calories
Catnip 0 calories
High Calorie Store Bought Treat Options

Butler Nutrisentials Lean Treats 3 calories
Temptations Tasty Chicken 2 calories
Friskies Cat Treats 3 calories

 

Low Calorie Human Food Options

Green Beans 1/4 cup 9 calories
Melon 1/4 cup 12 calories
Canned pumpkin 1/4 cup 20 calories
Popcorn air popped 1/2 cup 22 calories
Cottage Cheese 1 oz. 30 calories
Baby Carrots 8 count 30 calories
Pumpkin, canned 1/4 cup 20 calories
Tuna, canned in water 1 oz. 36 calories
Turkey Breast, Lean 1 oz. 50 calories
Chicken, Lean 1 oz. 52 calories
Beef, Lean 1 oz. 64 calories
Apple 1 medium 80 calories
Mini Marshmallows 9 count 100 calories
Banana 101 calories
High Calorie Human Food Options

String Cheese Stick 80 calories
Egg 1 large 81 calories
Peanut Butter 1 tbsp. 81 calories
Bologna 1 slice 87 calories
Marshmallows 4 large 90 calories
Bread, white 1 slice 94 calories
Cheese Slice 102 calories
McDonald’s 4 piece McNugget 170 calories
Hot Dog 242 calories
McDonalds Small French Fry 250 calories
McDonalds Hamburger 280 calories
McDonalds Cheeseburger 330 calories

Finding Man’s Best Friend

What is the perfect dog? Often it is the one found spur of the moment on a Saturday while “just looking.” The rule of P’s apply here: Prior planning prevents poor performance. There are many things to consider when choosing a pup. Here are some hints to make this process easier and increase your odds of success.

Preparing for Pup

Before picking up your new pup, you should take some time to prepare financially and environmentally.

How much is that doggie in the window?
Understanding the financial commitment involved with dog ownership is something that is easy to forget when looking into those deep brown eyes and smelling fresh puppy breath. Things to consider include the cost of quality dog food, preventative veterinary care (examinations, dewormings, vaccines, spay/neuter, heartworm and flea & tick preventative, microchipping and licensing), grooming needs, training, boarding and pet supplies. The ASPCA does a good job of outlining some of these costs: http://www.aspca.org/adoption/pet-care-costs.aspx 

Financial Surprises and Pet Insurance
There have been tremendous advances in veterinary medicine, but this comes at a cost. Pet insurance is a good way to mitigate unforeseen expenses. BONUS: Some insurance companies offer complimentary insurance coverage for a month! The ABC’s of pet insurance are explained at http://www.pet-insurance-university.com/guide_to_pet_insurance.html and you can find end-user supplied ratings for the major insurance companies at http://www.petinsurancereview.com/

Vetting Veterinarians
Now is also a good time to get recommendations from friends and family for veterinary care and visit prospective animal hospitals. Questions to ask include vaccination protocols, availability of appointments, fee structure (some hospitals have a different fee structure for sick visits), and general practice philosophy. A veterinarian should be your partner when it comes to preventative health care, illness, nutrition, behavior and overall family interactions. Request a tour of the animal hospital to get a feel for its personality; are employees caring, is the facility clean, and are pets receiving the care you would want for your loved one?  

Cozy Confines
Where will your new pal be spending their time? Training a dog to be crate-savvy facilitates potty training, keeps them safe and can allow for easier handling in the future (airplane travel, staying with family while vacationing, care when hurt, etc.). Styles and pricing vary considerably on crates, but planning ahead allows options such as online purchasing. Also be aware that you may need multiple size crates during the growth stage. Use too large a crate too soon and some benefits may be lost. One option is crates that have a divider. Another potential option is to ask your veterinarian if they have a crate loaner program for the growth phase. Lastly, while in the home, it is beneficial to partition off an area that is a safe zone for your new pet. Baby gates and exercise pens can assist with this.

Fenced in Follies or Dog Walking?
When your pet goes outside, will you be walking them or is your yard fenced-in? Invisible Fence in Crystal Lake is an example of pet fencing that doesn’t require a physical presence in your yard. Reputable companies provide a lifetime guarantee, training, and can be installed even if there is snow on the ground.

Picking a Pooch

Big or small, energetic or docile, young or old? There are so many choices when selecting the perfect pup that taking the time to research this part of the process can make the difference between happily ever after or heartbreak hotel.

Pondering Purebreds
When selecting a type of dog, first consider whether a purebred or mixed breed dog suits your lifestyle. Purebred dogs provide a predictable physical appearance, but may also come with genetic (and potentially devastating) medical problems. A good breeder can mitigate many health-related risks. Ask friends, family and your veterinarian for references when selecting a breeder. Indicators of a responsible breeder include allowing visits to their facility, encouraging interaction with the puppy’s parents, interest in whether the breed is appropriate for your lifestyle, and appropriate pre and postnatal care. Middlemen (brokers), meeting representatives halfway to deliver a dog, and puppy stores are all cause for concern that you may be dealing with a puppy mill bred dog. Puppy mill dogs are often inbred, handled infrequently (leads to behavior issues), and may be in poor health (https://www.thepuppymillproject.org/illinois-breeders-brokers-and-pet-stores/). Lifelong behavioral and medical problems may be established before you even see that cute puppy in the window.

Breed rescue groups are another great way of finding a desired breed. These dogs are often a bit older, but most responsible rescue groups work diligently to match the right dog with the right forever home.

Mixing it Up with a Mutt
Mixed breed dogs have the benefit of being one of a kind. Breed specific medical or behavioral problems are seen less frequently. Petfinder (http://www.Petfinder.com) allows prospective pet owners to filter through dogs available. Helping Paws Animal Shelter in Woodstock (http://www.helpingpaws.net/) and Animal Control in Crystal Lake (https://www.mchenrycountyil.gov/county-government/departments-a-i/health-department/veterinary-division-animal-control/adoptable-pets) both do a responsible job matching needy dogs with the right adoptee. Desirable shelters tend to be clean, allow adopters to tour their kennels (not just bring dogs to you), and can demonstrate that their dogs have received appropriate medical care from a licensed veterinarian. Far too often dogs are unknowingly adopted with health problems that could have been prevented or treated prior to adoption. When meeting with adoptable dogs look for a willingness to interact and a generally friendly demeanor. While a quiet, submissive dog may be endearing it can also be an indicator of future issues.

Hound Sweet Home

A dog homecoming is an exciting time for everyone. The first week at home is a “getting to know you” period. For young puppies, this time can be exhausting; for shelter dogs that may have bounced from place to place, this time can be a bit unsettling. Be patient, provide a consistent schedule and a safe environment, and keep things low key until everyone has adjusted. Focus on potty training, learning your dog’s signs of fatigue, and monitor for illness (vomiting, diarrhea, lack of appetite, coughing, excessive lethargy). 

Schedule a visit with your veterinarian of choice as soon as possible to identify any potential health concerns and preventative health care needs. This visit should also provide you with additional advice on potty training, nutrition and ancillary services. Avoid communal dog areas (i.e. pet stores, dog parks) until getting the go ahead from your veterinarian. If children are in the household, be vigilant to protect them and your new dog from each other. Children need to be taught how to safely interact with their new pet and ultimately need to be protected from any potentially harmful interactions (http://www.doggonesafe.com/).

Fun with Fido

Now that everyone has settled in, it’s time to have some fun! There are countless ways to have fun with your new friend. Whether it be as simple as painting a personalized dog bowl or as involved as pursuing advanced training for search and rescue, there are numerous ways that dogs can enhance our lives. Here are a few ideas to consider:

Training – Basic obedience
Training and socialization are beneficial for all dogs. Formal puppy classes, personal trainers and training books can all be of use. A Sound Beginning offers group training and 1:1 classes (https://asoundbeginningprogram.com/). ‘The Puppy Primer’ book provides clear and concise training tips and tricks that makes training effective and fun (https://www.amazon.com/Puppy-Primer-Patricia-B-McConnell/dp/1891767135). For advanced training, freestyle, agility, rally, obedience and fly ball are just a few of the options available to those interested in pursuing.

Dog Parks
Lake in the Hills (https://www.lith.org/government/departments/community-services/parks-and-recreation/bark-park), Crystal Lake (https://www.crystallakeparks.org/lippold-park) and Cary (https://www.carypark.com/rccms/dog-park/) all have outdoor dog parks. They offer a great opportunity to allow socialization and exercise for your pup and socialization for you with other pet owners. 

Trails
You can also check out the following trails that are dog friendly:

Travel
Vacationing with your dog is fun and has been made easier with resources found on the internet.

See these sites for pet friendly locations, services, and activities:

In Conclusion

Bringing a new furry friend home can be one of the most memorable days for a family. Take pictures, pull the video camera out, write down the funny story behind your new pup’s name. These are the memories that warm the heart and bring smiles for years to come.

Finding Man’s Best Friend

What is the perfect dog? Often it is the one found spur of the moment on a Saturday while “just looking.” The rule of P’s apply here: Prior planning prevents poor performance. There are many things to consider when choosing a pup. Here are some hints to make this process easier and increase your odds of success.

Preparing for Pup

Before picking up your new pup, you should take some time to prepare financially and environmentally.

How much is that doggie in the window?
Understanding the financial commitment involved with dog ownership is something that is easy to forget when looking into those deep brown eyes and smelling fresh puppy breath. Things to consider include the cost of quality dog food, preventative veterinary care (examinations, dewormings, vaccines, spay/neuter, heartworm and flea & tick preventative, microchipping and licensing), grooming needs, training, boarding and pet supplies. The ASPCA does a good job of outlining some of these costs: http://www.aspca.org/adoption/pet-care-costs.aspx 

Financial Surprises and Pet Insurance
There have been tremendous advances in veterinary medicine, but this comes at a cost. Pet insurance is a good way to mitigate unforeseen expenses. BONUS: Some insurance companies offer complimentary insurance coverage for a month! The ABC’s of pet insurance are explained at http://www.pet-insurance-university.com/guide_to_pet_insurance.html and you can find end-user supplied ratings for the major insurance companies at http://www.petinsurancereview.com/

Vetting Veterinarians
Now is also a good time to get recommendations from friends and family for veterinary care and visit prospective animal hospitals. Questions to ask include vaccination protocols, availability of appointments, fee structure (some hospitals have a different fee structure for sick visits), and general practice philosophy. A veterinarian should be your partner when it comes to preventative health care, illness, nutrition, behavior and overall family interactions. Request a tour of the animal hospital to get a feel for its personality; are employees caring, is the facility clean, and are pets receiving the care you would want for your loved one?  

Cozy Confines
Where will your new pal be spending their time? Training a dog to be crate-savvy facilitates potty training, keeps them safe and can allow for easier handling in the future (airplane travel, staying with family while vacationing, care when hurt, etc.). Styles and pricing vary considerably on crates, but planning ahead allows options such as online purchasing. Also be aware that you may need multiple size crates during the growth stage. Use too large a crate too soon and some benefits may be lost. One option is crates that have a divider. Another potential option is to ask your veterinarian if they have a crate loaner program for the growth phase. Lastly, while in the home, it is beneficial to partition off an area that is a safe zone for your new pet. Baby gates and exercise pens can assist with this.

Fenced in Follies or Dog Walking?
When your pet goes outside, will you be walking them or is your yard fenced-in? Invisible Fence in Crystal Lake is an example of pet fencing that doesn’t require a physical presence in your yard. Reputable companies provide a lifetime guarantee, training, and can be installed even if there is snow on the ground.

Picking a Pooch

Big or small, energetic or docile, young or old? There are so many choices when selecting the perfect pup that taking the time to research this part of the process can make the difference between happily ever after or heartbreak hotel.

Pondering Purebreds
When selecting a type of dog, first consider whether a purebred or mixed breed dog suits your lifestyle. Purebred dogs provide a predictable physical appearance, but may also come with genetic (and potentially devastating) medical problems. A good breeder can mitigate many health-related risks. Ask friends, family and your veterinarian for references when selecting a breeder. Indicators of a responsible breeder include allowing visits to their facility, encouraging interaction with the puppy’s parents, interest in whether the breed is appropriate for your lifestyle, and appropriate pre and postnatal care. Middlemen (brokers), meeting representatives halfway to deliver a dog, and puppy stores are all cause for concern that you may be dealing with a puppy mill bred dog. Puppy mill dogs are often inbred, handled infrequently (leads to behavior issues), and may be in poor health (https://www.thepuppymillproject.org/illinois-breeders-brokers-and-pet-stores/). Lifelong behavioral and medical problems may be established before you even see that cute puppy in the window.

Breed rescue groups are another great way of finding a desired breed. These dogs are often a bit older, but most responsible rescue groups work diligently to match the right dog with the right forever home.

Mixing it Up with a Mutt
Mixed breed dogs have the benefit of being one of a kind. Breed specific medical or behavioral problems are seen less frequently. Petfinder (http://www.Petfinder.com) allows prospective pet owners to filter through dogs available. Helping Paws Animal Shelter in Woodstock (http://www.helpingpaws.net/) and Animal Control in Crystal Lake (https://www.mchenrycountyil.gov/county-government/departments-a-i/health-department/veterinary-division-animal-control/adoptable-pets) both do a responsible job matching needy dogs with the right adoptee. Desirable shelters tend to be clean, allow adopters to tour their kennels (not just bring dogs to you), and can demonstrate that their dogs have received appropriate medical care from a licensed veterinarian. Far too often dogs are unknowingly adopted with health problems that could have been prevented or treated prior to adoption. When meeting with adoptable dogs look for a willingness to interact and a generally friendly demeanor. While a quiet, submissive dog may be endearing it can also be an indicator of future issues.

Hound Sweet Home

A dog homecoming is an exciting time for everyone. The first week at home is a “getting to know you” period. For young puppies, this time can be exhausting; for shelter dogs that may have bounced from place to place, this time can be a bit unsettling. Be patient, provide a consistent schedule and a safe environment, and keep things low key until everyone has adjusted. Focus on potty training, learning your dog’s signs of fatigue, and monitor for illness (vomiting, diarrhea, lack of appetite, coughing, excessive lethargy). 

Schedule a visit with your veterinarian of choice as soon as possible to identify any potential health concerns and preventative health care needs. This visit should also provide you with additional advice on potty training, nutrition and ancillary services. Avoid communal dog areas (i.e. pet stores, dog parks) until getting the go ahead from your veterinarian. If children are in the household, be vigilant to protect them and your new dog from each other. Children need to be taught how to safely interact with their new pet and ultimately need to be protected from any potentially harmful interactions (http://www.doggonesafe.com/).

Fun with Fido

Now that everyone has settled in, it’s time to have some fun! There are countless ways to have fun with your new friend. Whether it be as simple as painting a personalized dog bowl or as involved as pursuing advanced training for search and rescue, there are numerous ways that dogs can enhance our lives. Here are a few ideas to consider:

Training – Basic obedience
Training and socialization are beneficial for all dogs. Formal puppy classes, personal trainers and training books can all be of use. A Sound Beginning offers group training and 1:1 classes (https://asoundbeginningprogram.com/). ‘The Puppy Primer’ book provides clear and concise training tips and tricks that makes training effective and fun (https://www.amazon.com/Puppy-Primer-Patricia-B-McConnell/dp/1891767135). For advanced training, freestyle, agility, rally, obedience and fly ball are just a few of the options available to those interested in pursuing.

Dog Parks
Lake in the Hills (https://www.lith.org/government/departments/community-services/parks-and-recreation/bark-park), Crystal Lake (https://www.crystallakeparks.org/lippold-park) and Cary (https://www.carypark.com/rccms/dog-park/) all have outdoor dog parks. They offer a great opportunity to allow socialization and exercise for your pup and socialization for you with other pet owners. 

Trails
You can also check out the following trails that are dog friendly:

Travel

Vacationing with your dog is fun and has been made easier with resources found on the internet. See these sites for pet friendly locations, services, and activities:

In Conclusion

Bringing a new furry friend home can be one of the most memorable days for a family. Take pictures, pull the video camera out, write down the funny story behind your new pup’s name. These are the memories that warm the heart and bring smiles for years to come.

Basset Hound Fun Facts

Originally bred by French monks in the Middle Ages, as early as the 1500’s Bassets were used as hunting scent hounds with fox, rabbits, and badgers being as a specialty. At the time only often nobility could afford to hunt on horseback. Basset Hounds’ short legs allowed hunters to follow more easily on foot and allowed them to trudge through undergrowth picking up scents close to the ground easier. Increasing in popularity during the 1800’s, even Napolean owned a Basset. In 1785 George Washington, one of the first Basset Hound owners in the United States, was gifted a pack by Marquis de Lafayette.

Hush Puppies

Southern hunters and farmers would throw fried corn balls at their very loud and howling Basset packs to quiet them down. These “hush puppies” as they were called silenced their dogs. After traveling to the southeast, James Gaylor Muir Farmers and hunters with large packs of Bassets used to throw the traditional southern fried cornball, known as a hush puppy, to their dogs to silence their barking and howling. As an original brand salesman, Muir named the now famous shoe brand after these lovable hounds.

Medical Facts

Basset hounds are not only known for their long ears, but also their sense of smell. They have over 220 million smell receptors. Their long ears help left scents off the ground up to their nose.Their ears do not get much air circulation so they are more susceptible to infection.

Interesting/Fun Facts

Basset hounds have been featured in many films and tv shows over the years. For example..

  • Stella in Disney’s “Princess and the Frog”
  • Pops in Universal Pictures “Secret Life of Pet’s”
  • Dog in the tv series “Columbo”
  • Elvis Presley sang “Hound Dog” with a top hat wearing basset hound

Low Calorie Snacks for Your Dog

Low Calorie Store Bought Options

Licky Stik 1 calorie/10 licks
Fruitable Skinny Minis 2 calories
Zuke’s Mini Naturals 3 calories
Charlee’s Bear 3 calories
Hills T/D Small Bites 9 calories
Bravo 10 calories
Steward Freeze Dried Liver Treats 10 calories
Hills T/D Original Bites 17 calories

 

Low Calorie  Human Food Options

Cucumbers 1/4 cup 5 calories
Cauliflower 1/4 cup 6 calories
Green Beans 1/4 cup 9 calories
Melon 1/4 cup 12 calories
Canned pumpkin 1/4 cup 20 calories
Popcorn air popped 1/2 cup 22 calories
Cottage Cheese 1 oz. 30 calories
Baby Carrots 8 count 30 calories
Pumpkin, canned 1/4 cup 20 calories
Tuna, canned in water 1 oz. 36 calories
Turkey Breast, Lean 1 oz. 50 calories
Chicken, Lean 1 oz. 52 calories
Beef, Lean 1 oz. 64 calories
Apple 1 medium 80 calories
Mini Marshmallows 9 count 100 calories
Banana 101 calories

 

High Calorie Store Bought Treat Options

Milk- Bone Small 20 calories
Pup-Peroni 23 calories
Greenies, Teeny 25 calories
Grillin’ Bites Beef Steaks 30 calories
Beggin’ Stips Bacon 30 calories
Milk-Bone Medium 40 calories
Greenies, Petite 54 calories
DentaStix Regular 70 calories
Greenies Regular 90 calories
Milk-Bone Large 115 calories
Greenies, Large 144 calories
Pig Ear 182 calories
DentaBone Medium 188 calories
Milk-Bone Extra Large 225 calories
Greenies, Jumbo 270 calories

 

High Calorie  Human Food Options

String Cheese Stick 80 calories
Egg 1 large 81 calories
Peanut Butter 1 tbsp. 81 calories
Bologna 1 slice 87 calories
Marshmallows 4 large 90 calories
Bread, white 1 slice 94 calories
Cheese Slice 102 calories
Hot Dog 242 calories
McDonalds Small French Fry 250 calories
McDonalds Hamburger 280 calories
McDonalds Cheeseburger 330 calories

Weight Loss Program

54% of dogs in the United States are overweight or obese.

We are excited to join you in helping your dog reach a healthy weight.  As discussed, we will determine current calories being consumed, target weight, and options for weight loss. Please bring your dog in every four  weeks for a complimentary weight evaluation. At that time feeding adjustments will be made based on progress. Just like in humans, it takes time to put weight on and take weight off.  In the first month we may see no change in weight, weight loss, or even in some cases weight gain. But with time and dedication success is possible!

 

Why is a Healthy Weight  Important

Some common disorders associated with excess weight in dogs include:

  • Shorter life expectancy, obese dogs have been shown in studies to live up to two years shorter than lean dogs
  • Osteoarthritis
  • Type 2 diabetes
  • Respiratory and Heart disease
  • Kidney disease
  • If your pet has arthritis, keeping him/her at a healthy weight makes it easier to manage the discomfort associated with joint pain

Make a family commitment

A commitment to reach and maintain a healthy weight for your pet requires a commitment from the entire family – a weight loss plan isn’t going to succeed if one family member sneaks your pet extra food. Remind your family that there are many ways other than food to demonstrate and express their love for your family pet.

Common calorieintakes, human/dog/cat

Cats
10lbs 180-200 calories
Dogs
10lbs 200-275 calories
20lbs 325-400 calories
50lbs 700-900 calories
70lbs 900-1050 calories
90lbs 1100-1350 calories
Human
Male 2500 calories
Female 2000 calories
  • 20 lb dog eating 1 hotdog equals a person consuming 3 entire hamburgers
  • 20 pound dog lb eating 1 small oatmeal cookie equals a person eating 1 hamburger or 1 chocolate bar
Calorie Burning Options

  • Use a portion of your pet’s daily food as treats
  • Treats should make up only 5-10% of your pet’s diet
  • Teach a trick for a treat or introduce puzzle toys that requires the cat or dog to work for the treat. This is a great way to increase your pet’s exercise level, stimulate the mind, and give rewards at the same time.
 

Dog Urine Damage on Lawns

Causes, Cures and Prevention

  • Outline: Urban legends about urine damage, page 1
  • Only female dogs cause spotting in lawns, page 1
  • Dog spots are more common with certain breeds of dogs, page 1
  • Dog spots occur because urine is alkaline (has a pH above 7.0), page 2
  • Dog spots can be prevented by using food supplements that acidify a dog’s urine, page 2
  • Dog spots can be “cured” by sprinkling the affected area with backing soda, gypsum, dishwashing
  • detergent, etc. to neutralize the urine. page 2
  • Dealing with dog spots, page 2
  • What can be done with the dog(s)?, page 2
  • If the affected spots are green and grass growth is stimulated (no browning is apparent), page 3
  • If the affected spots are brown (the turf may or may not be dead), page 3

Urban Legends About Urine Damage

Dog urine damage is a common problem for home lawns, and one that has generated numerous home remedies and commercial products claiming to be cures for the spots. This lawn problem is misunderstood when it comes to causes and cures. Dog spotting on turfgrass is caused by the deposition of a high concentration of nitrogen (N)-containing compounds and associated salts on a small area in the lawn. These deposits are often concentrated in a relatively small portion of the lawn, resulting in turf injury or death. Some common “urban legends” surrounding dog urine damage to lawns are:

Only female dogs cause spotting in lawns.

FALSE. Dog spotting in lawns is most often caused by dogs that squat when they urinate, thus depositing a large volume of concentrated urine in a small area. Most “squatters” are female dogs, but some males do this as well, especially in their own yard. Many male dogs tend to “mark” vertical objects in the landscape (trees, posts, etc.), which presents problems for \ landscape plants.

Dog spots are more common with certain breeds of dogs.

MOSTLY FALSE. Dog spotting is more likely to occur (or be more obvious) with larger dogs, since they produce larger amounts of urine. Dog spots can occur with smaller breeds, especially if the dog tends to urinate in a limited area of the lawn.

Dog spots occur because urine is alkaline (has a pH above 7.0).

FALSE. Dog spots occur because a high concentration of N and salts has been deposited in a very small area of the lawn. In some cases, the added N causes dark green spots and rapid grass growth, without injuring the grass. In other cases, the result is a brown spot – often surrounded by a halo of dark green grass. The browning is caused by the concentrated nitrogen deposited in the center, which burns the leaf tissue, and may or may not cause tissue death. The lower concentration of salts on the periphery fertilizes the grass – resulting in a darker
green ring.

Dog spots can be prevented by using food supplements that acidify a dog’s urine.

FALSE. Dog spots do not occur because a dog’s urine is alkaline. Products advertised to “naturally” reduce urine alkalinity (including the amino acid, dl methionine, also known as methioform) may cause urinary system problems and can affect calcium deposition in growing bones of younger dogs. The addition of baking soda, potassium citrate and other salts are likewise not recommended as curatives for dog spots. A veterinarian should always be contacted before giving a dog a food supplement known to affect urine pH. There are medically sound reasons for altering urine pH, but the prevention of dog spots in lawns is not one of them. There are no dietary supplements that have been scientifically proven to reduce either the incidence or severity of dog spotting in lawns.

Dog spots can be “cured” by sprinkling the affected area with baking soda, gypsum, dishwashing detergent, etc. to neutralize the urine.

FALSE. The only “product” that can neutralize the urine’s negative effects is water. Gypsum and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) are salts and may compound the problem. Dishwashing detergents, which act as wetting agents or surfactants, may enhance water movement into and through the soil. While this theoretically could promote leaching and dilution of accumulated salts, some dishwashing detergents can burn grass plants.

Dealing with Dog Spots
What can be done with the dog(s)?

  • Train the dog to use a non-turf area in the landscape, such as an area covered with mulch or gravel, or select a location where dog spotting will not become an aesthetic problem and damage can be tolerated. This is the ONLY sure solution for the problem!
  • Always provide adequate water for your pet; increased water consumption will dilute urine, reducing the potential for turf injury. While the addition of salt, garlic, tomato juice and other “home remedies” to your pet’s food can increase water consumption (thus diluting their urine) your veterinarian should always be consulted before doing so. The increased salt intake can cause problems for older dogs, as well as for those with heart or kidney conditions.
  • Except for the addition of water to a dog’s food, no additive or supplement should be fed to your pet without first consulting with your veterinarian. Certain additives may increase a dog’s water intake, but can have detrimental and unintended consequences for its health.
  • If the affected spots are green and grass growth is stimulated (no browning is apparent):
    • Increase nitrogen fertilization frequency and/or the amount of fertilizer to help mask the urine-induced stimulation of growth and color; dark green spots will be especially visible on lawns that are not receiving adequate nitrogen fertilization.
    • Maintain adequate irrigation to prevent accumulation of salts in the soil; drought or lack of water can allow salts to accumulate and injure or kill turf.
  • If the affected spots are brown, (the turf may or may not be dead):
    • Increase irrigation amount and/or frequency to help dilute salts that have accumulated in the soil. This may help still-living turf recover, and will dilute salts in those areas where the turf has been killed (allowing for more effective re-seeding).
    • When turf has been killed, the dead sod and some soil (0.5-1 inch of soil) can be removed. Re-sod the area with new grass.
  • Individual dead/damaged spots can be re-seeded as follows:
    • In a Kentucky bluegrass lawn: Spot seed with Kentucky bluegrass (marginally effective) or perennial ryegrass (more effective). Tall fescue, K31 tall fescue, “dwarf” fescue, or annual (Italian) ryegrass should NOT be used for spot-seeding a bluegrass lawn.
    • In a tall fescue lawn: Spot seed with turf-type tall fescue (sometimes called “dwarf” fescue). Perennial ryegrass can also be used, but it has a finer texture and the newly seeded spots will look different from the rest of the lawn. Do NOT use K31 fescue or annual (Italian) ryegrass for spot-seeding a tall fescue lawn.
    • Fine fescue lawns: Seed with fine fescue seed. The use of perennial ryegrass or tall fescue is NOT recommended, as the spots will have a different color, texture, and growth rate.
    • Zoysiagrass and bermudagrass lawns: Patch using sod from a sod farm, or by transplanting sod from an inconspicuous area of same the lawn.

Consult your veterinarian before supplementing a pet’s diet with any product or food additive claiming to reduce dog spots in lawns. Similarly, no “spray-on” product for lawns, claiming to prevent or “cure” dog spots, has been scientifically proven to be effective.

Authors: Alison Stoven O’Connor, Ph.D, CSU Extension Horticulture Agent, Larimer County; and Tony Koski,
Ph.D., Extension Turf Specialist; Colorado State University Extension.
For additional information on lawn care, refer to csuturf.colostate.edu.
Colorado Master Gardener GardenNotes are available online at www.cmg.colostate.edu.
Colorado Master Gardener training is made possible, in part, by a grant from the Colorado Garden Show, Inc.
Colorado State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture and Colorado counties cooperating.
Extension programs are available to all without discrimination.
No endorsement of products mentioned is intended nor is criticism implied of products not mentioned.
Copyright Colorado State University Extension. All Rights Reserved. CMG GardenNotes may be reproduced, without
change or additions, for nonprofit educational use with attribution.
Revised October 2014

The Optimal Age for Spay/Neuter: A Critical Analysis of Spay Neuter Literature

Provided with permission from Dr. Philip Bushby
Southwest Veterinary Symposium 2018

Philip A. Bushby, DVM
Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA

Introduction

In the past few years the standard practice of sterilizing canine and feline pets has been challenged. Research studies document both benefits and risks associated with ovariohysterectomy and castration creating some level of confusion in the profession. Some in the profession argue for delay in performing these surgeries or abandonment altogether, while others argue for early age or pediatric spay/neuter. On one end of the spectrum are concerns over the incidence of certain orthopedic conditions and cancers and on the other end concerns over pet overpopulation and euthanasia of homeless pets in animal shelters. Who is correct? Should dogs and cats be sterilized and is there an optimal age for such surgeries?

The Ugly Truth

Estimates are that between 6 and 8 million animals are admitted to animal shelters in the United States each year. Approximately 50% of those animals are euthanized. Most of the euthanized animals are healthy, most of them friendly, most of them would be perfectly good pets if there were enough homes. But there aren’t enough homes and it doesn’t end there. Millions more are killed on highways, die of disease, or die of starvation. Every one of these animals is the offspring of owned animals that were not spayed or castrated somewhere in the lineage. Many people view this as an emotional issue, and it is emotional. But it is much more than that. It is a public health issue, and a risk to the health of peoples’ pets. It’s also financial issue. Billions of dollars are spent each year catching, caring for and eventually killing unwanted dogs and cats.

If a new disease were discovered causing the death of 3 to 4 million owned pets a year, the veterinary profession would scramble to find the cause, to discover how to treat, how to cure. We know the cause of pet overpopulation and we know the cure. But these animals are not in peoples’ homes. For the most part, they are hidden away. The deaths occur in back rooms of animal shelters or on the back roads. Out of the public view. Out of sight, out of mind.

The question we must answer is should we spay/neuter, and if so, when? At what age should you do the surgeries? We have seen the recommended age for spay/neuter change over the years. None of the recommendations have been based on a comprehensive analysis of sound research. In fact, until recently, there had been very little research on the impact of spay/neuter. The recommendations are based on opinions, on personal biases, or on the results of just a few research studies.

Research (Supportive of Delayed Spay Neuter or Don’t Spay Neuter)

Recent research publications have caused some in the profession to question not only pediatric spay/neuter, but spay/neuter in general. Four studies out of UC Davis veterinary school have resulted in many people, veterinarians and animal owners, expressing concern about the age of spay/neuter or about even performing spay/neuter at all. These studies are:

  • UC Davis: Golden retriever study 1 (February 2013)
  • UC Davis: Comparison of Labrador retrievers with Golden retrievers 2 (2014)
  • UC Davis: Neutering of German shepherd dogs 3 (2015)
  • UC Davis: Gonadectomy effects on the risk of immune disorders 4 (2016)

These articles report on retrospective studies that looked at the incidence of joint problems (CCL rupture, hip dysplasia), various cancers (lymphoma, hemangiosarcoma, osteosarcoma, mast cell tumors) and immune disorders. They reported varying degrees of increase in incidence of certain orthopedic conditions, neoplastic conditions and immune disorders in sterilized dogs.

Close examination of these papers, however, should cast doubt on the assumption that we should avoid or delay spay neuter.

  • Lack of control of variables: In the best research, all variables are controlled except the one you are measuring. Retrospective studies can’t do that. We don’t know the impact of diet, lifestyle, environment, preventive care, genetics or other factors on the results in these studies out of UC Davis.
  • Biased research population: At referral institutions cases managed by primary care veterinary clinics are not represented. For example, the private practitioner might manage the dog with mammary neoplasia, pyometra or testicular cancer, but refer the case of osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma or lymphoma. This would totally skew the research population. It gets even more confusing. What if animals are sterilized because they have an orthopedic condition as opposed to have an orthopedic condition because they were sterilized. And let’s complicate things a little more. There are two primary reasons why people don’t sterilize their dogs and cats; they want to breed them or they can’t afford the surgery. If someone cannot afford the cost of a spay or castration, what are the odds of them taking their pet to a referral hospital for specialized care? Again, skewing the research population.
  • Association does not prove cause and effect: In the past ten years, the incidence of diabetes and the number of people practicing yoga have both increased. That does not mean that yoga causes diabetes or that diabetes causes people to want to do yoga.
  • Small sample size: The UC Davis studies are actually reporting on very small numbers of cases. Random variation in scientific studies results from the chance distribution of measurements. The smaller the sample size the greater the chance for inaccuracy based simply on random variation.
  • Lastly, if all the findings in the UC Davis studies eventually prove to be true, you still cannot extrapolate from one breed to the next and certainly not from one species to another. The UC Davis author’s point that out, but many in the public or in the profession seem to ignore that fact.

The value of these studies out of UC Davis is that they point to the need for more research, preferably prospective studies in which case criteria and data collection standards are defined in advance and consistently applied. But they do not, at this time, justify wholesale changes in spay/neuter decision making.

There are key factors that should be considered when debating whether or not to sterilize or at what age to sterilize. We must be careful not to base such major decisions on studies with small number of animals. Secondly, in making any decisions about the medical or surgical care of pets we should look at all factors that influence health and longevity, not on just a few.

Research (Supportive of Spay Neuter)

A study at the University of Georgia analyzed the records of over 80,000 patients and demonstrated that sterilization is strongly associated with an increased life expectancy in dogs.5 In this study the life expectancy of sterilized dogs, both male and female, was increased in comparison to life expectancy of intact dogs.

  • Mean age of death of intact dogs: 7.9 years
  • Mean age of death of sterilized dogs: 9.4 years
  • Sterilization was associated with increased life expectancy of males by 13.8%
  • Sterilization was associated with increased life expectancy in females by 26.3%

While sterilization was associated with a decreased risk of death from some causes, such as infectious disease, it was associated with an increased risk of death from others, such as cancer. In this study sterilized dogs were “dramatically” less likely to die from:

  • Infectious disease
  • Trauma
  • Vascular disease
  • Degenerative disease

and sterilized dogs were more likely to die from:

  • Neoplasia
  • Immune-mediated disease

Within the neoplasia category, occurrence of transitional cell carcinoma, osteosarcoma, lymphoma, mast cell tumors was increased in sterilized dogs.

Within the neoplasia category, occurrence of mammary cancer was significantly decreased in sterilized dogs.

In interpreting what appears to be conflicting information in the literature, keep in mind that recognizing that something may increase the incidence of a condition is of little value without knowing what the incidence is. Doubling or tripling the incidence of a condition that is extremely rare, may leave the condition extremely rare. One need only to look at the overall incidence of various cancers to recognize that significantly increasing the incidence of a tumor that is relatively rare still leaves that tumor relatively rare, while significantly decreasing the incidence of a tumor that is common may make that tumor uncommon.

Banfield operates over 1000 veterinary hospitals that share a common computerized medical record system. Each year Banfield releases a “State of Pet Health Report.” In 2013 that report was based on analysis of data from 2.2 million dogs and 460,000 cats.6 Looking at longevity compared to spay/neuter status they discovered that:

  • Spayed dogs lived 23% longer than intact dogs
  • Neutered dogs lived 18% longer than intact dogs
  • Spayed cats lived 39% longer than intact cats
  • Neutered cats lived 62% longer than intact cats

What can we conclude so far?

  • Sterilized dogs and cats live longer
  • Sterilized dogs – higher incidence of certain cancers
  • Sterilized dogs – lower incidence of mammary tumors
  • Sterilized dogs may have higher incidence of some immune diseases
  • Intact dogs are more likely to die of infections and trauma
  • In some breeds sterilized dogs appear to have greater incidence of certain orthopedic conditions

Perhaps the most comprehensive reference related to age of spay neuter is a 2007 article by Margaret Root-Kustritz.7 In this article the author summarizes the literature up to that date detailing the relationship of sterilization status and disease incidences between sterilized and intact pets.

If we could see into the future for each animal we could determine which animals were going to develop osteosarcoma if they were sterilized and which were going to develop mammary neoplasia or pyometra if they were not. We could then make the best decision for each animal. Lacking that ability, we should make our recommendations based on population dynamics. In the United States, approximately 80% of the female dogs are spayed. The incidence of mammary neoplasia is 4% but that is almost exclusively in intact dogs, virtually 0% in spayed dogs. Making the incidence in intact dogs nearly 20%, 100 times the incidence of osteosarcoma at 0.2%. Some of the articles say that sterilization doubles the risk of osteosarcoma. But again 80% of the dogs in the U.S. are sterilized. So that “doubling” effect is essentially already represented in the 0.2% statistic.

If you total the reported incidence of all the conditions that are considered serious or moderately serious and in which the incidence is increased in sterilized dogs, the total is 3.0%. The chances of a sterilized dog getting any one of these conditions is 3.0% versus the chances of an intact female dog getting mammary neoplasia at 20% or pyometra at 24%.

You simply cannot make spay/neuter decisions based on the potential impact of spay/neuter on just a small handful of conditions or diseases. You must take into consideration the potential impact of sterilization on the overall health and longevity of the animal.

In 2017 Dr. Kustritz updated that article to include the relevant research since 2007.8

The key point in her latest article is this. The question about the effect of gonadectomy on health is one of causation: does gonadectomy at certain ages cause or prevent specific health issues? Defining an association is not enough, if it was think of the number of people practicing yoga that would come down with diabetes. At this point, none of the articles that document incidence document causation. The research is not there. To adequately determine causation, you need:

  • Randomized clinical trials
  • Unbiased subject selection
  • Adequate same size
  • Accurate and precise measurement of the factors of interest
  • Adequate control of confounding factors
  • Cautious & critical assessment of results

When you read the scientific literature, watch for these. Recognize that when any of these are compromised, so too are the results. We need more research; more quality research!

Spay Neuter (Cats, Pediatric Cats and Dogs)

It seems like most studies have focused on dogs, but what about cats, and what about pediatric spay/neuter? Studies out of Texas AM and Cornell have looked specifically at the medical and behavior effects associated with early-age spay/neuter and concluded that there were no serious long-term medical or behavioral effects associated with early-age sterilization in dogs and cats.9-11

Epidemiological studies in 1981 and 2005 document a significantly lower incidence of mammary neoplasia in cats when spayed prior to their first heat cycle.12,13 Given that median survival time of cats with mammary neoplasia is generally less than 1 year and that up to 96% of mammary tumors in cats are malignant, the reduction in incidence of mammary neoplasia is very significant. A 1997 study documented fewer anesthesia and surgical complications in cats sterilized under 12 weeks of age when compared to those sterilized at or after 6 months of age.14 The theory that castrating male cats prior to sexual maturity makes the penis smaller and predisposes to urinary tract obstruction has been proven to be false. In a 1996 study, Dr. Margaret Root Kustritz and Shirley and Gary Johnston demonstrated no difference in urethral diameters between cats castrated at 7 weeks, castrated at 7 months or left intact.15 None of the short-term or long-term studies have shown an increased incidence of urinary obstruction in neutered male cats.

A prospective study of 800 kittens comparing those sterilized between 8 and 12 weeks of age with those sterilized between 6 and 9 months found no evidence that age at the time of sterilization had any effect on the number of, or occurrence of, potentially undesirable behaviors.16

Feline Fix by Five

In 2016 the Veterinary Task Force on Feline Sterilization was convened to look specifically at spay neuter issues in cats. What they found was that having cats spayed before their first heat cycle:

  • Significantly decreases the risk for mammary carcinoma
  • Eliminates reproductive emergencies such as pyometra and dystocia
  • Prevents unintended pregnancies that may occur as early as 4 months of age
  • Potentially decreases behavioral problems linked with cat relinquishment.

In 2017 the AMVA formally endorsed the concept paper developed by the Veterinary Task Force on Feline Sterilization which recommends that cats be sterilized prior to 5 months of age. Endorsements have also come from the American Animal Hospital Association, The Feline Practitioners Association, the Association of Shelter Veterinarians, The Winn Feline Foundation, The Catalyst Council, The International Cat Association, The Cat Fanciers Association and PetSmart Charities. The Feline Fix by Five campaign has been developed in an effort to educate the public and the veterinary profession of the benefits of sterilizing cats before 5 months of age.

The Shelter World

Our program at Mississippi State University has been taking students to animal shelters since the early 1990s. We obtained a Mobile Veterinary Clinic in 2007 and a second Mobile Clinic in 2013. Since 2007 we have performed over 70,000 spay/neuter surgeries. Nearly fifty percent of these surgeries are pediatric. We currently serve 25 animal shelters/humane groups across northern Mississippi. In 2007, the shelters we served had a euthanasia rate in both dogs and cats of greater than 60%. In 2016, euthanasia rates had dropped to 20% in dogs and 34% in cats.

Humane Alliance (now called ASPCA Spay Neuter Alliance) is, perhaps, the largest high-volume spay/neuter clinic in the world. Humane Alliance was established in 1994 in Asheville, NC, an area with rapidly growing human population over the past 20 years and statistically that would mean a rapidly growing pet population as well. In the 20+ years since Humane Alliance started performing sterilizations there has been a 75% reduction in intake and a 79% reduction in euthanasia in local animal shelters.

An animal care center in east Tennessee has performed over 55,000 spay/neuter surgeries since 2007. In that time, they have recorded a steady increase in live release rate from their animal shelter, a decrease in dog and cat intake, and a decrease in euthanasia.

Trap neuter return is a growing method of controlling feral cat populations and studies show that areas that have implemented trap neuter return have significantly reduced shelter intake and euthanasia of cats.17,18

So How Do You Decide?

Decisions related to if and when to spay/neuter must be based first on the life situation of the animal: is it in a home or homeless? And secondly on an assessment of all known relationships between reproductive status and health and longevity, not just a few. When making decisions related to increase or decrease in incidence of a condition we must consider what the overall incidence is and the impact of the change.

This is what we appear to know.

  • In the shelter environment spay/neuter increases adoption rates, reduces shelter intake and reduces euthanasia.
  • There are several conditions that have low incidence in which the incidence may be increased with sterilization. These conditions include:
    • Prostate neoplasia
    • Transitional cell carcinoma
    • Osteosarcoma
    • Diabetes mellitus
    • Hypothyroidism
  • Sterilization decreases or eliminates the risk of several conditions that have high incidence:
    • Mammary neoplasia
    • Pyometra
    • Benign prostatic hypertrophy
    • Testicular neoplasia
  • Sterilization may be associated with an increased incidence of:
    • Cranial cruciate rupture
    • Hip dysplasia
    • Elbow dysplasia
    • in some breeds of dogs
  • Sterilization significantly increases life expectancy in dogs and cats.

Recommendations

For shelter animals, spay/neuter is prior to adoption.

For cats, there are few documented adverse effects of spay/neuter in cats and many documented positive effects. Female cats can come into heat by 4 ½ to 5 months. Spay or castrate before 5 months of age.

For owned dogs the owner must make an informed decision based on species, breed, intended usage and current medical knowledge at hand. For most breeds the protective effect of spay before the first heat cycle on mammary neoplasia far outweighs the potential risks associated with other cancers and orthopedic conditions.

Owned female dogs spay prior to 5 months of age.

For owned large-breed male dogs house pets orthopedic concerns may outweigh all others spay/neuter after growth stops 1518 months.

For owned large-breed male dogs free roaming population concerns may outweigh all others spay/neuter prior to 5 months of age.

For owned small-breed male dogs no evidence at this time for orthopedic issues castrate prior to sexual maturity 5 months.

Conclusions

There is much we still don’t know about the impact of spay and neuter. We must, therefore, always remain open to new information as research continues and, if need be, change our minds. In doing this we must, however, always be willing to look critically at new information to determine if conclusions are valid based on the research data.

Summary of Key Points

  • Cannot make spay/neuter decisions based on the impact of spay/neuter on a small handful of diseases. Must take into consideration the impact on the overall health and longevity of the animal.
  • To determine cause and effect
    • Randomized clinical trials
    • Unbiased subject selection
    • Adequate same size
    • Accurate and precise measurement of the factors of interest
    • Adequate control of confounding factors
    • Cautious & critical assessment of results
  • When making decisions related to increase or decrease in incidence of a condition, must consider what the overall incidence is and what the change is

Summary of Recommendations

Table 1. Recommended ages to spay neuter

Species

Spay or castrate

Dog or cat in shelter

Prior to adoption (as young as 6 weeks of age)

Cat (male or female)

Prior to 5 months of age

Dog (small breed, male or female)

Prior to 5 months of age

Dog (large breed female)

Prior to 5 months of age

Dog (large breed male – free roaming)

Prior to 5 months of age

Dog (large breed male – house pet)

After growth plates close: 15–18 months

References

1.  Torres de la Riva G, Hart BL, Farver TB, et al. Neutering dogs: effects on joint disorders and cancers in golden retrievers. PLoS One. 2013;8(2).

2.  Hart BL, Hart LA, Thigpen AP, Willits NH. Long-term health effects of neutering dogs: comparison of Labrador retrievers with golden retrievers. PLoS One. 2014;9(7).

3.  Hart BL, Hart LA, Thigpen AP, Willits NH. Neutering of German shepherd dogs: associated joint disorders, cancers and urinary incontinence. Vet Med Sci. 2016:1–9. doi:10.1002/vms3.34.

4.  Sundburg CR, Belanger JM, Bannasch DL, et al. Gonadectomy effects on the risk of immune disorders in the dog: a retrospective study. BMC Vet Res. 2016;12(1):278. doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0911-5.

5.  Hoffman JM, Creevy KE, Promislow DE. Reproductive capability is associated with lifespan and cause of death in companion dogs. PLoS One. 2013;8(4).

6.  Banfield. Banfield State of Pet Health Report.. www.banfield.com/Banfield/media/PDF/Downloads/soph/Banfield-State-of-Pet-Health-Report_2013.pdf. Published 2013. (VIN editor: the original link was modified on 8/7/18)

7.  Root Kustritz MV. Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2007;231(11):1665–1675. doi:10.2460/javma.231.11.1665.

8.  Root Kustritz M, Slater MR, Weedon GR, Bushby PA. Determining optimal age for gonadectomy in the dog: a critical review of the literature to guide decision making. Clin Theriogenol. 2017;9(2):167–211.

9.  Howe LM, Slater MR, Boothe HW, et al. Long-term outcome of gonadectomy performed at an early age or traditional age in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2000;217(11):1661–1665. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11110455.

10.  Howe LM, Boothe Harry W, Hobson H Phil, Holcom Jennifer L, Spann Angela C, SMR. Long-term outcome of gonadectomy performed at an early age or traditional age in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001;218(2):217–221.

11.  Spain CV, Scarlett JM, Houpt KA. Long-term risks and beneftis of early-age gonadectomy in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004;224(3):380–387.

12.  Hayes HM, Milne Kl, Mandell CP. Epidemilogical features of feline mammary carcinoma. Vet Rec. 1981;108:476.

13.  Overley B, Shofer FS, Goldschmidt MH, et al. Association between overiohysterectomy and feline mamary carcinoma. J Vet Intern Med. 2005;19:560.

14.  Howe LM. Short-term results and complications of prepubertal gonadectomy in cats and dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1997;211(1):57–62.

15.  Root MV, Johnston SD, Johnston GR, et al. The effect of prepuberal and postpuberal gonadectomy on penile extrusion and urethral diameter in the domestic cat. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 1996;37(5):363–366.

16.  Porters N, deRooster H, Verschueren K, et al. Development of behavior in adopted shelter kittens after gonadectomy performed at an early age or at traditional age. J Vet Behav. 2014;9(5):196–206.

17.  Johnson KL, Cicirelli J. Study of the effect on shelter cat intakes and euthanasia from a shelter neuter return project of 10,080 cats from March 2010 to June 2014. PeerJ. 2014;2:e646. doi:10.7717/peerj.646.

18.  Levy JK, Isaza NM, Scott KC. Effect of high-impact targeted trap-neuter-return and adoption of community cats on cat intake to a shelter. Vet J. 2014;201(3):269–274. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.05.001.